--- title: "History of the systems approach" source: "https://systems-analysis.info/eng/History_of_the_systems_approach" wiki: "systems-analysis.info/eng" article: "History_of_the_systems_approach" language: "en" categories: - "Category:English" - "Category:Science" - "Category:Systems approach" revision_id: 178 wiki_created_at: 2026-09-06T22:18:31Z wiki_modified_at: 2026-09-06T22:18:31Z downloaded_at: 2026-09-07T22:21:37Z --- # History of the systems approach The **history of the development of the systems approach** is a journey from the philosophical contemplation of complexity to the creation of tools for managing that complexity. Systems analysis has unified numerous disciplines, becoming an integral part of the scientific and practical toolkit of the 21st century. Systems analysis emerged as a scientific discipline in the 20th century, but its origins trace back to antiquity and are linked to the evolution of concepts such as **wholeness, the interaction of part and whole, structure, and system dynamics**. The history of systems analysis reflects a transition from a philosophical understanding of systematicity to the creation of formalized methods for modeling and managing complex objects. ## Ancient and Pre-scientific Origins The ideas underlying systems analysis can be found as far back as the philosophy of Ancient Greece. **Aristotle** formulated the principle that *the whole is something more than the sum of its parts*—one of the earliest expressions of the idea of systemic wholeness. During the Renaissance and the Modern era, understanding of structure and order in nature deepened thanks to the **methods of induction and deduction** (F. Bacon, R. Descartes), as well as the creation of mathematical models of interactions (I. Newton, G. Leibniz). ## 19th Century: Formation of the Prerequisites for Systems Thinking In the 19th century, approaches emerged that reflected ideas of organization and wholeness: - In chemistry (A. Butlerov) – the theory of chemical structure as an example of the systemic dependence of properties on structure; - In biology – cell theory (Schwann and Schleiden), ideas about adaptation and evolution (H. Spencer, C. Darwin); - In philosophy – differentiation and integration as universal processes. A need arose to integrate humanistic and formal knowledge—a prerequisite for future interdisciplinary sciences. ## Early 20th Century: The Birth of Systems Disciplines In the early 20th century, attempts were made to comprehend **universal organizational principles**: - **A. A. Bogdanov** introduced the concept of *tektology*—a universal organizational science, in which he described the principle of **dynamic equilibrium** as the mode of existence for open systems; - **E. Bauer** formulated the **principle of the fundamental non-equilibrium of living systems**, emphasizing their active nature and constant energy consumption to maintain structural integrity. Both Bogdanov's tektology and Bauer's principle of non-equilibrium became ideological and methodological forerunners of many subsequent disciplines in systems science, including: - General Systems Theory by L. von Bertalanffy, - Synergetics by H. Haken, - The theory of self-organization and nonlinear dynamics, ### Tektology of A. A. Bogdanov One of the first approaches to systems thinking was tektology, developed by A. A. Bogdanov (real name – Alexander Alexandrovich Malinovsky). In his multi-volume work "Tektology: The Universal Organizational Science" (1903–1922), Bogdanov sought to identify universal organizational laws that operate at all levels: physical, biological, social, and cultural. The key principle of tektology is dynamic equilibrium, according to which any organized system maintains its stability through continuous interaction with the external environment and by compensating for emerging changes. In this sense, a system is viewed as an active participant in the exchange of matter, energy, and information, and its stability is the result of a dynamic balance. Bogdanov was, in fact, one of the first to introduce the concept of an open system, although he used his own conceptual apparatus—"ingression," "egression," "dissimilation," "assimilation," etc. Despite its complex terminology, tektology anticipated many ideas of general systems theory and system dynamics. ### The Principle of Non-Equilibrium of E. Bauer In the 1930s, the Hungarian-Russian biologist Ervin Bauer proposed a principle fundamental to both biology and systems theory: living systems are fundamentally non-equilibrium. In his work "Theoretical Biology" (1935), he presented the idea that, unlike physical and chemical objects, living systems are never in a state of equilibrium but continuously perform work against entropy using their own free energy. According to Bauer, an organism does not simply consume external energy but uses it primarily to maintain its internal non-equilibrium structure. This means that the stability of a living system is ensured not only by the external influx of energy but also by its active redistribution and accumulation in targeted structures—a precursor to the concepts of "biopotential" and "goal-directed activity." Bauer thus substantiated the internal directedness and organization of living systems, taking a step toward understanding self-organization and sustainable development, which became key for future concepts of systems with purposeful behavior. ## Mid-20th Century: Institutionalization of the Systems Approach In the second quarter of the 20th century, the systems approach moved from a phase of theoretical exploration to scientific institutionalization. This was manifested in the formation of independent disciplines, academic schools, scientific terms and concepts, organizational structures, and the emergence of practice-oriented fields of systems analysis. During this period, systems thinking began to take on formalized scientific forms: - **Cybernetics** (N. Wiener) – the science of control and communication in living organisms and machines; - **Operations Research** – an interdisciplinary approach to solving problems of management and optimization, developed since the 1940s; - **General Systems Theory** (L. von Bertalanffy) – the concept of an open system capable of self-regulation and increasing complexity in defiance of entropy. ### Cybernetics and Engineering Applications A key stage in this institutionalization was the establishment of **cybernetics** as the science of control, communication, and regulation in technical, biological, and social systems. Cybernetics gained momentum in the 1940s, partly due to the work of **Norbert Wiener**, who formulated the foundations of a universal approach to self-regulating systems. The ideas of cybernetics were adopted and developed in the USSR. In 1959, the **Scientific Council on the Complex Problem of "Cybernetics"** was established under the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences, led by academician **A. I. Berg**. During this time, **biotechnical and engineering fields**, including automation, control, and information processing, also began to develop actively. ### Operations Research In parallel, the field of **Operations Research (OR)** was taking shape—a discipline focused on solving practical problems of management, planning, and optimization under conditions of limited resources and uncertainty. OR grew out of military applications during World War II and quickly spread to economics, logistics, and industry. In the USSR, the development of OR is associated with scientists such as **L. V. Kantorovich**, **E. S. Venttsel**, **N. P. Buslenko**, **N. N. Moiseev**, and others, who contributed to the development of methods for modeling, statistical analysis, optimization, and simulation of complex systems. ### Formation of General Systems Theory A landmark step was the formulation of **General System Theory** by the Austrian biologist **Ludwig von Bertalanffy**. His concept of an **open system**, which is in constant interaction with its environment, brought formalization and universality to systems thinking. Unlike cybernetics, which focused on control and feedback, Bertalanffy's theory emphasized the **structure, hierarchy, and evolution of systems**. ### Emergence of Systems Analysis as an Applied Field During this same period, **systems analysis** emerged as an applied field focused on: - formulating complex interdisciplinary problems; - modeling that accounts for multiple factors and uncertainty; - integrating various methods (both formal and expert-based); - developing management decisions. ## Second Half of the 20th Century: Formation of Systems Analysis as an Applied Discipline In the second half of the 20th century, systems analysis was established as an **applied theory** aimed at solving problems under conditions of uncertainty, multiple criteria, and high complexity. Its development was driven by advances in: - automated control systems (ACS), - applied mathematics and decision theory, - systems engineering and management sciences. ## See also - [Concept of a system](https://systems-analysis.info/eng/Concept_of_a_system "Concept of a system") - [Core concepts of systems approach](https://systems-analysis.info/eng/Core_concepts_of_systems_approach "Core concepts of systems approach") - [Observer in the systems approach](https://systems-analysis.info/eng/Observer_in_the_systems_approach "Observer in the systems approach") - [Systems approach](https://systems-analysis.info/eng/Systems_approach "Systems approach")